Islam, the Media and Mental Health

Much of what is known about Islam and Muslims in Western societies is derived from the mass media. This includes newspapers, magazines, radio, television, films, books and websites. In the book titled Islam and Contemporary Civilisation, Rane (2010:136) positions mediated Islam as a dilemma and notes that the aforementioned “sources have particular power and potential in modern society.” They give meaning to issues and events covered and thereby have the potential to influence the public’s opinions, attitudes and beliefs. In the absence of first-hand experience, the mass media also generally become a primary source of information (Rane 2010: 136).

Since 9/11, there has been increased media and government scrutiny of the Muslim population (Ciftci et al 2013: 26). The American public’s attention has increasingly focused on Arab and Muslim Americans since this date. Although Islam dates back more than 1400 years and has had roots in Western nations for many centuries, interest in Islam and Muslims prior to 9/11 incidents in America was minimal (Ahmed & Amer 2012: 3). 9/11 therefore led to an increased visibility of Muslims and interest in Islam (Ahmed & Amer 2012: 3).

Despite the increased interest in Islam, the average person has very little knowledge about the religion and its followers (Ahmed & Amer 2012: 3). Following the attacks, the media played a major role in creating negative attitudes toward Muslims by disseminating misconceptions and misunderstandings about Islam (Ahmed & Amer 2012: 10). According to Amri and Bernak (2013: 46), “right-wing media figures have smeared the image of Muslims and Islam and make no apologies for their Islamophobic views and beliefs.”  For example, it portrays Muslim males as militant, aggressive fundamentalists with violent tendencies (Ahmed & Amer 2012: 274). According to Ahmed and Amer (2012: 274), Muslims are often presented as foreign “enemies of freedom, tolerance and pluralism.”

Although Muslim beliefs and ethnic sub-cultures are heterogeneous, Islam is often perceived as a monolithic group (Ciftci et al 2013: 23). Muslims are therefore negatively stereotyped and subjected to significant interpersonal and structural discrimination (Ciftci 2013: 23). Take the wearing of the hijab for example. In Western societies, the wearing of the hijab is often misrepresented in the media (Tabassum 2005: 63). The image of a Muslim woman in hijab is used to demonstrate an encompassing negative stereotype (Hassan 2010: 2). It advertises the view that Islamic hijab wearers are adherents of a religion that promotes anti-Western values such as indiscriminate violence and gender oppression (Tabassum 2005: 63). So, these Muslim women are practicing a minority religion in countries that do not understand it (Williams & Vashi 2007: 271).

The media may have a detrimental impact on the stereotypes non-Muslims develop as well as on the psychological health of Muslims themselves (Nadal et al 2012: 30). The negative representation of Islam in mainstream media can increase levels of anxiety and stress for Muslim people and alienate them from society (Ahmed & Amer 2012: 274). These negative images on the news or in fictional television shows may therefore impact on Muslims’ self-esteem and identity (Nadal et al 2012: 30).

It is therefore necessary for the media and other institutions to be much more vigilant in preventing these types of stereotypes from continuing in order to promote optimal mental health for Muslim people (Nadal et al 2012: 30). Being victim of such overt discrimination on a consistent basis can have an additive effect on one’s mental health (Nadal et al 2012: 32).

References

Ahmed, S. & Amer, M. (2012). Muslim Mental Health: Handbook of Mental Health Issues and Interventions. New York: Taylor and Francis.

Amri, S. & Bemak, F. (2013). “Mental Health Help-Seeking Behaviors of Muslim Immigrants in the United States: Overcoming Social Stigma and Cultural Mistrust.” Journal of Muslim Mental Health 7 (1): 43-63.

Ciftci, A., Jones, N. & Corrigan, P. (2013). “Mental Health Stigma in the Muslim Community.” Journal of Muslim Mental Health 7 (1): 17-32.

Nadal, K., Griffin, K., Hamit, S., Leon, J., Tobio, M. & Rivera, D. (2012). “Subtle and Overt Forms of Islamophobia: Microaggressions toward Muslim Americans. Journal of Muslim Mental Health VI (2): 15-37.

Rane, H. (2010). Islam and Contemporary Civilisation: Evolving Ideas, Transforming Relations. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press.

Tabassum, R. F. (2006). Listening to the voices of hijab. Women's Studies International Forum, 29 (1), 54-66. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/10.1016/j.wsif.2005.10.006

Williams, R. H. & Vashi, G. (2007). "Hijab" and American Muslim Women: Creating the Space for Autonomous Selves." Sociology f Religion, 68 (3), 269-287. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20453164

Buddhism

Buddhism is widely recognised as a religion that professes no harm, ahimsa and non-violence. The doctrine of non-violence can be associated with many religious traditions however. So, Adam and Codling (2008: 178) argue that is not ahimsa, but rather emptiness that is the essence of Buddhism. Buddhism teaches that nothing possesses an underlying essence or independent existence (Adam & Codling 2008: 178). This includes the notion of evil.

According to Loy (n.d.), one of the main causes of evil in this world has been human attempts to eradicate evil, or what has been viewed as evil. From a Buddhist perspective, much of the world’s suffering has been a result of our way of thinking about good and evil (Loy n.d.). However, in Buddhism, evil has no essence or substance of its own. It is a product of impermanent causes and conditions (Loy n.d.). This religion emphasizes three roots of evil, known as greed, ill will and delusion (Loy n.d.). These can be recognised as the “three poisons.”

There is a basic Buddhist teaching that highlights that we suffer and cause others to suffer because of the three aforementioned roots of evil. According to Adam and Codling (2008: 181), “the presence of these impure motivations in one’s mind bars one from the awareness that sees reality as it is.” For example, Buddhism cannot justify the thousands of deaths that occurred from the 9/11 bombings. Rather, the Buddhist solution involves transforming greed into generosity, ill will into loving-kindness and delusions into wisdom. In other words, Buddhists are urged to distinguish the sinner from the sin. Again considering 9/11, bin Laden and the other al-Qaeda leaders are examples of how the roots of evil can overwhelm the mind.

Buddhism focuses on the karmic consequences of actions of ignorance and deadly hatred in a person’s next lives. From this point of view, terrorists will be stuck in an everlasting cycle of karma and never reach nirvana. According to Loy, “to study Buddhism is to study yourself; to study yourself is to forget yourself; to forget yourself is to be awakened and realize your intimacy with all things.” Buddhist enlightenment or ‘awakening’ requires mindfulness of our ways of thinking. It is concurrently believed that terrorists have the capacity to understand how evil their actions have been, and to try to atone for them. As we know that this is very unlikely to occur, Buddhists therefore mourn this occasion. Impure actions, such as those motivated by an intent to harm therefore have negative effects (Adam & Codling 2008: 181).

Of the three poisons, it is delusion that is generally considered the fundamental human problem. It indicates the presence of mistaken views that function to obscure one’s awareness of the way events actually occur (Adam & Codling 2008: 182). The path leading to awakening involves training oneself to be nonviolent in thought, word and deed. Nonviolence is thus viewed as a natural, spontaneous expression of the highest spiritual realization. The intent to harm is an expression of hated, which is necessarily based on delusion. For example, acts of terrorism are based on delusion because they involve an intention to harm. What counts in the end is the inner spiritual condition of the person, understood in terms of the absence or presence of the three poisons (Adam & Codling 2008: 187).

References

Adam, M. and W. Codling. (2008). Buddhist Perspectives on Terrorism. In B. Rennie and P. Tite, Eds., Religion, Terror and Violence: Religious Studies Perspectives. New York: Routledge.

Loy D.R. nd. The Nonduality of Good and Evil: Buddhist Reflections on the New Holy War. http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-MISC/101797.htm

Bhawuk, India and Hinduism

There is a daily experience of peace and harmony that has characterized India for thousands of years of recorded history (Bhawuk 2012: 144). In his chapter, Bhawuk (2012) discusses the general state of peace existent in India and details the contributory cultural factors. He goes on to say that this unique, continuing tradition of peaceful harmony arises through the diverse religions practiced there. This framework can be argued to offer hope for engendering peaceful coexistence in other regions of the world today.

Hindu adherents make up 80.5% of the Indian population (Bhawuk 2012: 140). Therefore, this religion can be argued to be an important contribution to the peacefulness of India throughout history. Hindu adherents pray for happiness and health for everybody, everywhere. They wish that all may see only auspicious events and that no one may be unhappy. They pray for peace, as well as ever-increasing peace, everywhere. Therefore, in the Indian culture, peace is an important part of daily life. To emphasize its importance, it is chanted or prayed for on every auspicious occasion by its Hindu populace (Bhawuk 2012: 139).

India is consequently often represented as a culture of peace, peace that has existed for thousands of years in spite of the presence of many conflicts and wars recorded in its history. This is commendable as, according to the Indian census data from 2001, India is also one of the most diverse countries, with respect to religion, and practitioners of most world religions can be found there, including Islam and Christianity (Bhawuk 2012: 140). Additionally, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains are all indigenous to India, and have traditionally lived harmoniously. The question is, how? Even when kings championed Buddhism in India, they did not use swords to convert people to their faith, but practiced nonviolence (Bhawuk 2012: 141).

The history of religious violence and conflict can be contended to arise through cultural distance and a lack of knowledge of other religious beliefs (Bhawuk 2012: 144). Ultimately, education or having knowledge of other cultures is greatly important in terms of peacebuilding. There is great value placed on dialog in providing an understanding and appreciation of others. For instance, one of the cognitive tools used by Indians to create harmony and peace is the simultaneous acceptance of the opposites (Bhawuk 2012: 145). In other words, dialog is the Indian way of creating peace. Additionally, India is one of the few countries that celebrates religious diversity by granting national holidays to celebrate import festivals, including Christian, Muslim and Buddhist holidays (Bhawuk 2012: 151).

Additionally, if a person is not at peace with himself or herself, he or she is likely to create conflict rather than bring peace between communities and nations. Gandhi, for example, was at peace within and in his interpersonal interactions, and that is why he could bring peace to communities and nations (Bhawuk 2012: 140). According to Ragini and Wagner (2009: 303), Gandhi had “a sharp understanding of the Indian psyche which helped him to create a powerful repertoire of symbolic representations associated with non-violence.” This legacy of non-violence, which was both spiritual and political, played an important role in India and the world. However, it is not accepted by all.

Although Bhawuk ultimately argues India, and therefore the Hindu culture, to be largely peaceful, Ragini and Wagner dispute this in terms of fundamentalism. Hinduism is not exempt from such fundamental tendencies (300). Fundamentalism can be defined as “the activity of a group that is directed against the dissolution of traditional order in the course of modernization and that is characterized by a discernible pattern of religious militancy” (Ragini & Wagner 2009: 300). For example, Hindutva fundamentalism in contemporary India depends on rejecting the symbolism of Gandhi’s non-violence, which is widely esteemed as a landmark achievement in the course of India’s struggle for independence from the British Empire. The prevailing social representation of Gandhi and his politics of non-violence are thus condemned to be secularist and anti-Hindu by this group.

So, India, supposedly the most peaceful country on earth, is not exempt from fundamentalism and violence or religious prejudice. If this country cannot sustain peace, then what hope is there for the rest of the world? No country or person is truly selfless and at peace with one another. There will always be religious disagreements or people with fundamental views. The best we can hope for or aim for is to create a world of dialog. Although there is some form of religious violence in India following Ghandi’s rein, India still has a lot to teach the rest of the world in terms of communication, acceptance and dialog.

References

Bhawuk, D. (2012). India and the Culture of Peace: Beyond Ethnic, Religious, and Other Conflicts. In D. Landis and R.D. Albert. Handbook of Ethnic Conflict, International and Cultural Psychology. Springerlink Online.

Ragini, S. and W. Wagner. (2009). Cultural Mechanics of Fundamentalism: Religion as Ideology, Divided Identities and Violence in Post-Gandhi India. Culture and Psychology 15(3): 299-236.